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THE 


ADVANTAGES 


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OF 


l^mmttra  ai  fta  tit  Ceacljiitg 


ADDRESSED  TO  THE  TEACHERS  AND  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

OF 

CALIFO^IA. 


BY  ANDREW  J.  MOULDER, 

SUPERINTENDENT     OF     PUBLIC     INSTRUCTION. 


SACKAMENTO: 
BENJ.    P.    AVERY,    STATE    PRI 

1862. 


LIBRARY 

APR  2  9 1945 


►••••: : 
*  ••  • 

••••    :  : 


In  compliance  with  the  following  request,  the  accompanying 
Lecture  is  published.  It  is  hoped  that  it  may  furnish  some  use- 
ful hints  to  the  Teachers  and  School-Officers  of  the  State. 

ANDEEW  J.  MOULDEK, 

Supt.-  Public  Instruction. 


Teachers'   Institute,  ) 

San  Francisco,  Dec.  6th,  1862.  j 
Hon.  A.  J.  Moulder, 

Dear  Sir  : — I  have  the  pleasure  to  transmit  to  you  the  following  resolution,  which 
was  unanimously  adopted  by  the  Teachers'  Institute,  at  its  last  meeting : 

Resolved,  That  the  thanks  of  the  Institute  he  presented  to  the  Hon.  A.  J.  Movllder 
for  his  scholarly  and  practical  Address  ;  and  that  he  be  respectfully  requested  to  fur- 
nish a  copy  of  the  same  for  publication. 

Yours  respectfully, 

D.  H.  WHITTEMORE, 

Secretary  Teachers'  Institute, 


x\DVANTAGES 


AN  ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  IN  TEACHING, 


A     LECTURE, 

Delivered  before  the  Teachers'  Institute  of  San   Francisco, 
Dec.    5th,    1862. 


By  ANDREW  J.  MOULDER, 

SUPERINTENDENT        OF       PUBLIC       INSTRUCTION' 


Ladies  and  Gentlemen  or  the  Institute  : 

In  the  remarks  I  propose  to  make  this  evening,  I  do  not  in- 
tend to  bore  you  with  platitudes  about  the  importance  of  edu- 
cation, or  with  vague  generalities  about  teaching  thoroughly, 
enforcing  good  order,  awakening  thought,  and  the  like..  I  have 
myself  been  dosed  too  severely  with  such  stuff  to  attempt  to 
inflict  it  upon  others. 

I  propose  to  make  a  running  commentary  upon  some  matters 
connected  with  your  profession — to  rejuvenate  some  old  ideas — 
present  them  in  as  pleasing  a  dress  as  possible — glance  at  some 
of  the  late  improvements  in  the  art  of  teaching — suggest  some 
useful  expedients,  and  assist  in  burying  some  moribund  theories 
and  exploded  notions. 

At  this  late  day,  one  cannot  expect  much  of  originality  in  the 
treatment  of  a  subject  embraced  between  such  narrow  limits  of 
variation  as  the  true  principles  of  education.  You  might  as 
well  expect  originality  in  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures.     Bat, 


6  THE   ADVANTAGES   OP 

If  in  8C|  saiail  a  matter  as  teaching  the  Geography  of  our  own 
State,  1  can  cut  a  trail  by  which  you  shall  reach  your  end  along 
the  diameter,  instead  of  around  the  circumference,  I  have  made 
a  labor-saving  improvement. 

Nobody  can  invent  the  sewing-machine  over  again,  but  one 
may  get  out  a  patent  for  a  new  stitch,  or  a  little  hemming  at- 
tachment. 

All  knowledge  is  attained  either  through  the  medium  of  the 
senses,  or  by  inductive. reasoning.  The  sense  of  touch  informs 
us  that  ice  is  cold,  and  fire  hot.  No  amount  of  reasoning  could 
convince  us  of  these  facts.  But  none  of  our  senses  could  satisfy 
us  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle  are  together  equal  to  two 
right  angles. 

There  are  two  modes  of  reasoning,  so  called,  the  distinction 
between  which  is  clearly  marked,  and  should  so  be  kept.  The 
one  is  by  means  of  an  association  of  ideas — the  other,  by  what 
I  shall  call  an  association  of  words.  The  latter*  is  really  not 
reasoning  at  all,  although  the  process  by  which  results  are 
reached,  is  often  called  so.  If  one  should  teach  a  parrot  to 
repeat,  "  two  and  and  two  make  five,"  the  words  "  two  and  two  " 
would  ever  after  suggest  to  the  parrot  the  conclusion  "  five." 
This  is  a  result  reached  by  an  association  of  words.  It  involves 
no  exercise  of  intelligence,  no  assent  of  the  mind.  So  is  it 
With  much  of  the  knowledge  imparted  to  children.  The  child 
used  to  be  taught,  for  instance,  that  "  a  verb  is  a  word  which 
signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer  " — "  mood  or  mode  is  the  par- 
ticular form  or  manner  in  which  the  action,  passion,  or  being  of 
the  verb  is  represented."  The  child  may  glibly  repeat  these 
definitions.  This  it  effects  by  the  association  of  words.  There 
is  no  association  of  ideas,  and  without  such  association,  the 
acquirements,  mis-called  knowledge,  of  the  youthful  prodigy 
gifted  with  a  retentive  memory,  are  all  a  sham  and  a  delusion. 

Let  me  illustrate  the  distinction  I  am  attempting  to  make, 
by  the  curious  and  fantastic  mythology  of  the  Greeks  and  Bo- 
mans,  the  joint  production  of  their  priests  and  poets.  They 
were  taught  in  their  infancy  to  believe,  or  rather  to  repeat,  that 
Jupiter  was  the  King  of  the  G-ods— that  Neptune  was  Sovereign 
of  the  Seas,  and  Pluto  of  the  Infernal  Kegions.  They  acted 
upon  this  belief.  They  erected  costly  temples  and  altars — main- 
tained large  retinues  of  priests — offered  perpetual  sacrifices. 
But  the  belief  in  the  existence  and  attributes  of  Jupiter,  of 
Neptune,  and  of  Pluto,  was  neither  based  upon  the  evidence  of 


ASSOCIATION   OF   IDEAS,  / 

the  senses,  nor  was  it  the  result  of  any  compelling  sequence  of 
reasons,  such  as  that  by  which  we  are  forced  to  the  conviction 
that  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the  other  two  sides.  In  the 
former  case,  Jupiter  is  declared  to  be  the  King  of  the  Gods  on 
the  same  principle  by  which  the  parrot  declares  "two  and  two 
make  five" — that  is,  by  association  of  words.  The  word  "Ju- 
piter" suggests  the  words  "  King  of  the  Gods."  In  the  latter 
case,  the  mind  assents — in  fact  it  cannot,  if  it  would,  avoid  the 
conclusion,  that  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  squares  on  the  other  two  sides,  and  this  conclusion 
it  reaches  by  the  association  of  ideas — not  of  words.  Nobody 
now  believes  in  the  Deities  of  the  Pantheon,  but  Christian,  He- 
brew, Mahometan,  Brahmin,  Buddhist,  and  Parsee,  all  assent 
to  the  mathematical  conclusion,  established  by  the  Greek  geom- 
eter, 400  years  before  Christ.  Fortunately  the  old  system  of 
teaching,  which  required  the  child  to  commit  a  certain  amount 
of  matter  to  memory,  and  to  repeat  it,  is  rapidly  falling  into 
disrepute.  A  child  so  taught  is  very  like  the  telegraph  instru- 
ment that  repeats  words  all  day  long,  but  never  gets  an  idea. 

I  have  still  a  horrible  recollection  of  the  manner  in  Which  I 
was  taught  Grammar.  Old  Lindley  Murray  was  my  text  book. 
I  was  required  to  get  by  rote  two  pages  per  day  of  Eules  and 
Notes,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  left  hand  page,  although  it 
might  be  Note  8,  under  Eule  20,  and  ending  at  the  bottom  of 
the  right  hand  page — though',  likely  as  not,  it  ended  with  Note 
5  of  Eule  21.  With  feelings  of  unutterable  aversion,  I  would 
still  diligently  con  my  task — task,  in  the  roughest  acceptation 
of  the  term — and  at  the  time  appointed,  would  move  slowly  and 
lingeringly  up  to  the  master  to  recite.  To  the  last  moment,  I 
would  hang  on  to  the  book,  and  many  a  time,  after  having 
handed  it  to  my  Teacher,  have  I  asked  him  to  let  me  have  it 
back  again  a  moment,  before  he  commenced,  that  I  might  have 
a  last  look  at  the  words  of  some  frightful  sentence  upon  which 
I  was  afraid  I  should  break  down.  The  recitation  commenced, 
I  would  rush  rapidly  on,  for  fear  the  words  would  escape  me  if 
I  lingered.  As  the  impression  produced  by  light  upon  the 
retina  remains  for  a  brief  period  after  the  illuminating  body  is 
withdrawn,  so  remains — and  for  but  a  little  while  longer — the 
impression  produced  by  the  words  of  a  task  whose  meaning  is 
unintelligible  to  the  pupil.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the 
boy  should  be  in  a  hurry.     He  is  very  like  the  man  who  is 


8  THE   ADVANTAGES    OF 

attempting  to  cross  a  shaking  bog.  He  must  skip  rapidly  from 
tuft  to  tuft.  If  he  hesitates,  he  is  lost.  Well,  I  would  push 
briskly  through  my  recitation,  scarcely  halting  to  take  breath, 
until  I  reached  a  point  where  memory  failed  me.  Floundering 
here  a  moment,  the  indulgent  master  would  sometimes  give  me 
a  clue  to  help  me  on.  He  would  repeat  perhaps  the  next  two  or 
three  words,  such  as  "  and  the  noun,"  or  "  is  governed  " — and 
with  this  assistance,  I  would  dart  on,  like  the  pointer  that  has 
got  on  the  scent  anew. 

Sometimes  when  at  fault  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the  most 
incomprehensible  of  the  Notes,  I  would  try  back,  just  as  a  boy 
does  who  balks  as  he  reaches  the  edge  of  a  ditch  which  he  is 
attempting  to  clear  by  a  run  and  jump.  The  second  time,  per- 
haps, I  would  get  on  so  much  impetus  that  I  would  run  down 
the  obstacle,  and  come  out  at  the  end  with  filing  colors, 
although,  like  an  overtasked  racer,  a  little  blown. 

My  Grammar  master,  I  remember,  was  a  great  stickler  for 
the  text  of  old  Murray.  If  Murray  used  the  word  "  signify- 
ing"— "  signifying"  it  must  be.  If,  instead,  I  happened  to  em- 
ploy the  word  u  meaning,"  or  if  in  place  of  the  expression 
"  nouns  signifying  the  same  thing,"  I  substituted  the  phrase 
'•  substantives  expressing  the  same  idea,"  I  was  stopped  at  once 
with  the  remark — "  No,  that's  not  it;  that  wont  do." 

Murray's  text  was  the  only  genuine  coin — all  imitations,  how- 
ever good,  were  but  counterfeits  that  could  not  pass.  I  have 
sketched  the  miseries  a  boy  endured  in  the  study  of  Grammar 
in  early  days,  that  I  might  bring  out  in  bold  relief  the  glaring 
faults  and  errors  of  the  system  of  training  formerly  in  vogue. 
Even  yet,  there  are  Teachers  wTho  cling  to  this  abominable  sys- 
tem, while  others,  who  have  kept  pace  with  the  age,  and  who 
know  how  a  child  should  be  taught,  rest  contend  with  parrot 
recitations,  because  it  saves  the  time  and  trouble  it  would  take 
to  test  the  pupil's  comprehension  and  to  illustrate  the  subject  of 
the  lesson. 

In  a  little  book,  called  "  Familiar  Dialogues,"  written  by  Mr. 
Fowle,for  the  amusement  of  his  pupils,  occurs  a  dialogue  which 
takes  off  so  happily  this  folly  of  expecting  children  to  acquire 
knowledge  by  committing  lessons  to  memory,  and  also  the 
kindred  folly  of  crowding  a  little  of  everything  into  the  young 
mind,  that  I  may  be  pardoned  if  I  here  repeat  it : 

"A  mother  in  search  of  a  school  for  her  child,  accosted  a  young  teacher  as  fol- 
lows: 


ASSOCIATION    OF   IDEAS.  9 

Mother. — Are  you  the  mistress  of  this  school,  miss  ? 
Teacher. — I  am,  madam. 

M. — Your  school  has  hcen  highly  recommended  to  me,  and  I  have  concluded  to  place' 
my  only  daughter  under  your  care,  if  we  can  agree  upon  the  subject  of  her  studies 
Pray  what  do  you  teach  ? 

T. — What  is  usually  taught  in  preparatory  schools,  madam.  How  old  is  your  littlo 
girl? 

31. — She  is  only  five,  but  then  she  is  a  child  of  remar-kable  capacity. 
T. — I  should  not  think  she  studied  many  branches  at  present,  madam,  whatever  she 
may  do  hereafter. 

M. — Indeed  she  is  not  so  backward  as  you  imagine.  She  has  studied  astronomy, 
botany,  and  geometry,  and  her  teacher  was  preparing  to  put  her  into  Latin,  when  ilj 
health  obliged  her  to  relinquish  her  school. 

T. — Have  you  ever  examined  her  in  these  sciences,  madam  ? 

31. — 0  yes,  indeed.  Fraxinella,  my  dear,  tell  the  lady  something  of  geometry  and 
astronomy.  What  is  astronomy,  my  dear  ?  Ask  her  a  question,  miss,  any  question 
you  please. 

T. — What  planet  do  we  inhabit,  my  dear  ? 

C— Hey  ? 

T. — What  do  you  live  on,  my  dear  ? 

C. — On  meat,  ma'am  ;  I  did  not  know  what  you  meant  before. 

31. — No,  my  dear,  the  lady  wishes  to  know  what  you  stand  on  now — on  what  do  you 
stand  ? 

C. — On  my  feet,  mother  ;  did  she  think  I  stood  on  my  head  ? 

31. — Fraxinella,  dear,  you  have  forgotten  your  astronomy  the  three  days  you  have 
staid  at  home.  But  do  now  say  a  line  or  two  of  your  last  lesson  to  the  lady  ,•  now  do, 
dear,  that's  a  darling. 

C. — The  equinoctial  line  is  the  plane  of  the  equator  extended  in  a  straight  line  until 
it  surrounds  the  calyx  or  flower-cup,  for  the  two  sides  of  an  isuckle  triangle  are  always 
equal  to  the  hippopotamus. 

31. — There,  miss ;  I  told  you  she  had  it  in  her,  only  it  requires  a  peculiar  tact  to 
draw  it  out.     I  knew  she  would  astonish  you. 

T. — She  does,  indeed,  madam.  You  speak  of  the  plane  of  the  equator,  my  dear ; 
will  you  be  good  enough  to  tell  me  the  meaning  of  the  word  plane  ? 

C. —  Ugly,  ma'am  ;  I  thought  everyboby  knew  that. 

T. — How  many  are  three  times  three,  my  dear  ? 

0. — Three  times  three  ? 

T. — Yes  ;  how  many  are  they  ? 

C. — I  don't  know.  Mrs.  Flare  never  told  me  that;  she  said  everj'body  knows  how 
to  count ! 

T. — She  taught  you  to  read  and  spell,  I  suppose. 

M. — No,  I  positively  forbade  that.  I  wished  to  have  her  mind  properly  developed, 
without  having  her  intellect  frittered  away  upon  elements.  But  I  see  your  school  will 
not  do  for  my  daughter.  I  was  afraid  you  only  taught  the  lower  branches.  Come, 
Fraxy,  dear,  let  U3  call  on  Miss  Flourish  ;  perhaps  she  is  competent  to  estimate  your 
acquirements,  and  finish  your  education." 

It  is  now  accepted  almost  as  an  axiom  by  the  profession,  that 
any  thing  which  appeals  to  the  senses  can  best  be  taught  through 
the  senses,  and  by  a  little  ingenuity  and  preparation  on  the  part 
of  the  Teacher,  many  things  may  be  thus  taught,  which,  at  first 

2 


10  THE   ADVANTAGES    OF 

sight,  appear  of  an  abstract  nature,  and  not  reducible  to  the 
test  of  the  senses. 

The  alphabet,  for  instance,  is  taught  in  some  of  the  Primary 
Schools  of  Europe  by  means  of  large  block  letters. 

The  child  is  made  to  look  upon  them  as  toys,  and  soon  learns 
to  pick  out  any  particular  letter  from  the  blocks,  ranged  upon 
the  floor,  without  regard  to  sequence. 

But  in  the  absence  of  blocks,  the  same  result  may  be  obtained 
by  assisting  the  child  with  a  resemblance  of  the  letter  to  some- 
thing with  which  he  is  familiar.  I  cannot  better  illustrate  my 
idea  than  by  reading  an  extract  from  a  quaint  old  work  entitled 
"  The  Youth  of  Shakspeare." 

"Mother,"  said  young  Shakspeare,  "I  pray  you  tell  me  something  of  the  fairies 
of  whom  nurse  Cicely  discourseth  to  me  so  oft.  How  may  little  children  be 
possessed  of  such  goodness  as  may  make  them  he  well  regarded  of  these  same  fairies, 
mother?"  "  They  must  be  sure  to  learn  their  letters  betimes,"  replied  she,  "that 
they  may  be  able  to  know  the  proper  knowledge  writ  in  books,  which,  if  they  know 
not  when  they  grow  up,  neither  fairy  nor  any  other  shall  esteem  them  to  be  of  any 
goodness  whatsoever."  "  I  warrant  you  I  will  learn  my  letters  as  speedily  as  I  can," 
replied  the  boy,  eagerly.  "  Nay,  I  beseech  you,  mother,  teach  them  to  me  now,  for  I 
am  exceeding  desirous  of  being  thought  of  some  goodness.  But  what  good  are  these 
same  letters  of,  mother?"  inquired  he,  as  he  took  his  horn  book  from  the  shelf.  "  This 
much,"  replied  Dame  Shakspeare  ;  "by  knowing  of  them  thoroughly  one  by  one,  you 
shall  soon  come  to  be  able  to  put  them  together  for  the  forming  of  words ;  and  when 
you  are  sufficiently  apt  at  that,  you  shall  thereby  como  to  be  learned  enough  to  read  all 
such  words  as  are  in  any  sentence,  which  you  shall  find  to  be  only  made  up  of  such  ; 
and  when  the  reading  of  such  sentences  shall  be  familiar  to  you,  doubt  not  your  abil- 
ity to  master  whatsoever  proper  book  falleth  into  your  hand,  for  all  books  are  com- 
posed only  of  letters,  as  I  shall  teach  thee  straightway."  The  lesson  had  not  proceeded 
far,  when  the  draper's  wife  came  in.  "  And  what  hast  got  here,  prithee,  that  thou  art 
so  earnest  about?  "  asked  Mrs.  Dowlass.  "A  horn  book,  as  I  live  !  And  dost  really 
know  thy  letters  at  so  early  an  age?"  "Nay,  I  doubt  I  can  tell  you  them  all,"  re- 
plied Master  William,  ingenuously,  "but,  methinks  I  know  a  good  many  of  them." 
Then  pointing  at  the  several  characters,  as  he  named  them,  he  continued :  "First, 
here  is  A,  that  ever  standeth  astraddle.  Next  him  is  B,  who  is  all  head  and  body  and 
no  legs.  Then  cometh  C,  who  bulgeth  out  behind  like  a  very  hunchback.  After  him 
cometh  D,  who  doeth  the  clean  contrary,  for  his  bigness  is  all  before.  Next," — here 
he  hesitated  for  some  few  seconds,  the  others  present  regarding  him  with  exceeding 
attentiveness  and  pleasure — "  next  here  is — alack,  dear  mother,  do  tell  me  that  fellow's 
name  again,  will  you,  an'  it  will  go  hard  with  him  if  he  escape  me." 

Here,  you  observe,  the  young  scholar  breaks  down  as  soon  as 
a  resemblance  fails  to  assist  him  with  an  association  of  ideas. 

Think  you,  that  a  child  taught  the  alphabet  in  this,  or  any 
similar  way,  would  ever  be  tired  of  his  lesson  ? 

In  teaching  Geography,  all .  admit  that  the  approach  to  the 
child's  comprehension  is  easiest  through  the  sense  of  sight.  A 
globe  is  therefore  indispensable.     If  the  District  is  too  poor  to 


ASSOCIATION    OF    IDEAS.  11  / 

</> 

buy  one,  the  Teacher  should  get  up  a  substitute.  Eun  a  skewer 
through  a  pumpkin,  if  nothing  better  can  be  done.  The  sense 
of  sight  embraces  resemblances  to  familiar  objects,  and  of  this, 
valuable  use  may  be  made  in  imparting  a  knowledge  of  many 
details  in  Geography. 

If  you  would  impress  upon  the  mind  of  a  child  the  shape  or 
outline  of  Italy,  for  instance,  call  his  attention  to  its  close 
resemblance  to  the  shape  of  a  boot.  You  may  rely  upon  it  he 
will  always  have  a  clear  idea  of  that  country. 

Go  a  little  farther,  and,  using  this  same  resemblance,  you  may 
impress  upon  him,  with  equal  force,  some  details  of  the  geogra- 
phy of  Italy.  Thus,  show  .him  that  the  Alps  form  its  northern 
border,  and  correspond  to  the  trimming  or  border  around  the  top 
of  the  boot.  Show  him,  by  means  of  an  outline  map,  that  the 
toe  of  the  boot  approaches  very  closely  to  Sicily,  from  which  it 
is  only  separated  by  the  narrow  Strait  of  Messina — that  Europe, 
in  fact,  through  Italy,  seems  in  the  act  of  booting  Sicily.  Call 
his  attention  to  the  fact  that  Cape  Spartivento  is  just  at  the  toe 
of  the  boot ;  that  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  corresponds  very  accu- 
rately to  the  hollow  or  arch  in  the  sole  of  the  foot;  that  the 
peninsula  of  Otranto,  terminated  by  Cape  Di  Leuca,  answers 
to  the  heel,  and  that  this  heel  approaches  closely  to  the  coast  of 
Turkey,  being  separated  from  it  only  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto ; 
that  Naples  and  Mount  Vesuvius  are  but  little  above  the  instep 
of  the  boot,  and  that  the  Apennines  run  down  the  middle  of  the 
country,  just  as  the  seam  does  in  the  side  of  the  boot.  With 
such  assistance,  my  word  for  it,  the  child  will  always  have  a 
clear  and  distinct  idea  of  the  shape  of  Italy — the  location  of 
the  Alps,  the  Apennines,  Sicily,  Cape  Spartivento,  the  Straits 
of  Messina  and  Otranto — the  Gulf  of  Taranto  and  Cape  Di 
Leuca — Naples  and  Vesuvius ;  and  one  thus  instructed,  will  be 
able  to  construct,  from  memory  alone,  an  outline  map,  embracing 
at  least  the  particulars  named,  that  will  show  a  very  fair  approx- 
imation to  the  reality.  Weeks  of  drilling  in  the  text  books, 
and  pages  of  description,  would  not  infix  so  much  knowledge. 

Again,  if  you  would  impress  the  geographical  outline  of  the 
Spanish  Peninsula  upon  the  pupil's  mind,  you  cannot  so  well 
attain  your  end  as  by  showing  him  a  Spanish  dollar,  and  call- 
ing his  attention  to  the  shield,  the  form  of  which  is  exactly 
that  of  the  Peninsula;  to  the  Castle  and  the  Lion — the  ancient 
Christian  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Leon,  whose  union  freed 
Spain  from  the  Saracens ;  to  the  two  pillars,  emblems  of  the 


12  THE    ADVANTAGES    OF 

Pillars  of  Hercules,  Gibraltar  and  Ceuta;  to  the  motto  that 
entwines  them,  "  Ne  plus  ultra''  "  there  is  nothing  beyond  " — 
alluding  to  the  foot  that  Spain  was  looked  upon  as  the  outer- 
most edge  of  the  earth  until  1492.  when  she  herself  pushed 
beyond. 

Coming  nearer  home,  how  can  we  assist  a  child  to  a  lasting 
impression  of  the  outline  and  leading  geographical  features  of 
our  own  State  ?  Put  before  him  an  outline  or  other  map  of 
California,  and  show  him  that,  including  the  Peninsula  of  the 
Mexican  Province — Lower  California — it  closely  resembles,  in 
shape,  a  side  view  of  the  body  of  a  man  from  the  waist  down, 
with  the  leg  bent  at  the  hip  and  the  knee.  You  will  remember 
that  our  eastern  boundary  line  runs  due  south  from  the  south- 
ern line  of  Oregon  to  Lake  Bigler,  thence  it  makes  a  bend  to 
the  east,  running  in  a  south-easterly  direction  to  the  river  Colo- 
rado, thence  southerly  down  that  river  to  its  intersection  with 
the  Gila,  near  the  Gulf  of  California,  Now  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  our  northern  boundary  corresponds  very  accu- 
rately to  the  waist  of  a  man — Cape  Mendocino,  to  the  hip — so 
much  of  the  Eastern  boundary  as  runs  due  South,  to  the  stom- 
ach— so  much  of  the  State  as  lies  below  Sacramento,  to  the 
upper  portion  of  a  leg  bent — so  much  of  the  Colorado  Kiver  as 
forms  our  eastern  boundary,  to  the  knee  bent,  and  Lower  Cali- 
fornia to  the  leg  below  the  knee.  Our  southern  boundary  may 
be  likened  to  the  garter  worn  by  gentlemen  when  knee  breeches 
were  the  fashion,  or  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  stocking.  With 
such  aids,  a  child  can  never  forget  the  contour  of  our  State, 
and  will  never  be  at  a  loss  to  draw  from  menfory  an  outline 
map  of  it,  with  very  tolerable  exactness. 

Extend  your  similes  further,  and  show  that  the  Coast  Eange 
of  Mountains,  running  from  the  neighborhood  of  Mt.  Shasta  all 
the  way  down  to  Lower  California,  and  thence  to  Cape  St. 
Lucas,  answers  pretty  nearly  to  the  outside  seam  in  a  trousers' 
leg  j  San  Pedro,  the  port  of  Los  Angeles,  to  the  angle  just 
under  a  bent  knee  ;  Fort  Yuma  on  the  Colorado,  to  the  old- 
fashioned  knee-buckle ;  Humboldt  Bay,  to  the  buckle  behind, 
used  to  contract  the  waist  of  pantaloons  ;  Lake  Bigler,  to  the 
angle  made  by  the  body  with  the  femur  or  thigh  bone  when 
bent,  and  so  on,  continuing  your  fancied  resemblances  as  long 
as  your  ingenuity  will  suggest. 

Enough  has  been  mentioned  to  show  that  the  outline,  leading 
geographical  features,  and  limiting  points  of  importance  of  the 


ASSOCIATION    OF   IDEAS.  13 

State,  may,  by  this  expedient,  be  ineffaceably  impressed  upon 
the  pupil's  mind. 

With  ordinary  ingenuity  and  a  little  preparation,  the  Teacher 
may  find  familiar  objects  to  which  to  liken  other  countries.  It 
will  involve  some  trouble,  perhaps,  at  first,  but  it  will  save  more 
in  the  end. 

One  word  upon  the  teaching  of  spelling  and  defining.  In 
this,  no  assistance  can  be  obtained  from  the  senses,  either  di- 
rectly by  a  picture  or  model  of  the  object,  or  indirectly  by  its 
real  or  fancied  resemblance  to  some  other  object. 

Here  the  memory  alone  must  be  relied  on. 

If  ours  were  a  phonetic  language  we  might  appeal  to  the 
sense  of  hearing  through  resemblances  in  sound. 

If  the  pupil  once  learned  that  bough  spelled  bough,  he  would 
not  hesitate,  when  asked,  to  spell  cough — cow;  rough,  row. 
But  as  our  spelling  is  extremely  irregular,  the  same  letter  assum- 
ing as  many  functions,  according  to  its  company,  as  the  figure  0 
in  arithmetical  notation,  there  is  no.  expedient  to  abridge  the 
labor  of  memorizing  each  word.  And  just  here,  I  cannot  for- 
bear quoting  a  portion  of  Horace  Mann's  amusing  description 
of  the  complexities  and  absurdities  of  our  spelling,  and  the  con- 
sequent sufferings  of  the  unfortunate  child  learning  to  spell. 
He  happily  describes  the  five  vowels  as  five  harlequins.  "Ac- 
cording to  Worcester,  these  five  letters  alone  have  29  different 
sounds,  viz. :  a,  7  ;  e,  5 ;  t,*5'j  o,  6 ;  and  u,  6. 

But  the  difficulty  of  their  number  is  nothing  compared  with 
that  of  their  masquerading.  In  almost  every  line  we  read,  these 
letters  reappear  several  times;  but  however  short  their  exit 
from  the  stage,  they  reenter  in  a  changed  dress.  But  not  only 
does  the  same  letter  puzzle  us  with  its  multiplicity  of  sounds, 
but  different  letters  have  the  same  sound,  and  combinations  of 
letters  assume  the  sound  of  individual  letters ;  and  they  mock 
us  by  playing  back  and  forth  with  the  facility  and  malignancy 
of  evil  sprights. 

Thus,  as  Mr.  Pierpont  has  shown  in  his  "  Little  Learner," 
there  are  eight  letters  and  combinations  of  letters  which  have 
the  first  sound  of  a,  as  in  fate,  viz.  :  a,  in  date;  ai,  in  paid ;  aigh, 
in  straight;  ay,  in  day  ;  eh,  in  eh  (exclamation);  eigh,  in  eight; 
and  ey,  in  they. 

So  the  first  sound  of  e  is  given  to  e,  in  be ;  to  ea,  in  bean  ;  ee, 
in  bee;  ei,  in  seize;  eo,  in  people;  i,  in  machine;  ie,  in  grief ;  and 
o,  in  you. 


14  THE    ADVANTAGES    OF 

The  first  sound  of  o  is  given  to  o  in  note  ;  oa,  in  boat;  oe,  in  doe  ; 
oh,  in  oh  (exclamation) ;  ough,  in  borough  ;  ow,  in  throw  ;  owe,  in 
owe  ;  and  eau,  in  fteaw. 

Again;  owr/A  appears  in  these  different  sounds:  bough,  cough, 
hough  (the  hinder  part  of  the  leg  of  a  beast),  though,  through, 
thought,  thorough,  tough. 

It  was  on  this  combination,  or  rather  dispersion,  that  the  cele- 
brated couplet  was  formed : 

"  Though  the  tough  cough  and  hiccough  plough  ine  through, 
O'er  life's  dark  lough,  I  still  my  way  pursue." 

Take,  as  specimens,  such  words  as  success,  or  vaccine,  where, 
although  the  letters  cc  are  placed  in  juxtaposition,  they  are 
sounded  differently  j  or  the  words  holy  and  wholesome ;  or  the 
classes  of  words  in  which  6%  and  ie  are  arbitrarily  transposed,  as 
perceive,  retrieve,  deceive,  believe,  receive,  aggrieve,  etc.  ;  in  one 
class  the  i  coming  before  the  e,  in  the  other  after  it,  though 
sounded  alike  in  both  cas.es.  Why  should  there  be  a  t  in  clutch 
and  crutch,  but  none  in  such  or  much  t.  Take  any  volume  of 
poetry,  and  observe  with  what  different  combinations  of  letters 
the  lines  terminate,  and  you  will  perceive,  however  certain  it  is 
that  each  rhyme  will  chime,  yet  the  harmony  is  only  for  the  ear, 
not  for  the  eye. 

But  an  exposition  of  all  the  contradictions,  complexities  and 
tortuosities  in  the  formation  of  our  language,  can  never  be 
given-'  by  any  finite  mind.  It  is  one  immense  shuffle  and  pre- 
varication. However  Hibernian  it  may  seem,  it  is  still  almost 
true,  that  what  rules  there  are,  are  exceptions,  and  that  the 
anomalies  tend  towards  a  law,  not  from  one. 

If  the  26  letters  were  multipled  into  each  other,  according  to 
the  rule  of  permutations  and  combinations,  the  product  would 
hardly  exceed  the  bewildering  diversities  of  its  construction ; 
for  after  all  the  differences  in  the  powers  of  the  letters,  whether 
used  singly,  or  in  combination,  there  would  still  remain  unenu- 
merated,  all  the  cases  of  silent  letters,  the  reduplication  or  omis- 
sion of  consonants  in  compound  and  derivative  words,  and  the 
transposition  of  sounds,  as  in  the  numerous  cases  where  h, 
though  coming  after  w  in  writing,  is  sounded  before  it,  as  in  the 
words  when,  whether,  wherefore,  etc. 

In  the  last  named  cases  the  h  was  formerly  written  before 
the  w,  following  the  order  of  the  sound,  as  hwen,  instead  of 
when;  but  this  natural  arrangement  was  altered  for  no  other 


ASSOCIATION    OF    IDEAS.  15 

reason  that  we  can  perceive,  but  only  to  render  it  a  member 
worthy  to  be  admitted  into  the  general  chaos. 

In  the  same  way  the  words  knot  and  gnarled  seem  to  have  been 
spelled  with  a  k  and  a  g,  to  make  the  orthography  of  the  names 
twist  and  curl  like  the  things  themselves. 

Ey  the  course  ordinarily  pursued  in  teaching  a  child  to  read, 
he  is  made  to  repeat  the  letters,  one  by  one  j  then  in  combina- 
tions like  ba,  be,  bi,  bla,  ble,  bli,  in  which  each  letter  has  a  single 
and  uniform  sound. 

He  is  then  taken  into  words,  where  each  of  the  principal  let- 
ters, in  the  rapidity  of  its  changes  from  one  sound  to  another, 
outdoes  ventriloquism;  where  the  first  five  vowels  to  which 
respectively  he  has  been  accustomed  to  give  the  same  alpha- 
betic sound,  assume  29  different  sounds,  so  that,  according  to  the 
doctrine  of  chances,  it  will  happen  only  once  in  five  or  six  times 
that  he  will  be  correct,  if  he  sounds  them  as  he  was  taught. 
Give  a  child,  for  instance,  such  a  sentence  as  this :  "  The  far- 
famed  walls  of  the  palace  are  fast  falling  to  decay."  He  begins 
by  giving  the  alphabetic  sound  of  a  to  the  a  in  far,  and  of  course 
calls  it  fare;  he  is  corrected  and  told  to  pronounce  it  far;  he 
catches  the  sound  of  a  in  far  and  proceeds  to  the  next  word, 
which  he  calls  famm'd;  here  he  is  again  corrected  and  made  to 
say  famed ;  he  then  pronounces  walls,  wales,  according  to  the  last 
direction;  but  this  will  not  do,  and  he  is  obliged  to  say  walls; 
in  consequence  of  this  he  gives  the  broad  sound  to  the  first  sylla- 
ble in  palace  calling  it  p&ll;  here  he  is  snubbed  and  tol'd  to  say 
pal;  he  does  so,  and  hurrying  to  the  next  syllable,  he  sounds 
the  a  in  ace  as  in  pal,  making  the  word  pallas.  The  teacher  now 
begins  to  think  him  a  fool,  and  is  confirmed  in  the  opinion, 
when  he  carries  forward  the  obscure  sound  of  a,  as  in  palace, 
and  applies  it,  instead  of  the  grave  sound,  to  a  in  are.    - 

The  poor  child,  now  seeing  the  same  letter  in  the  next  word, 
fast,  is  in  a  quandary,  and  will  not  venture  to  pronounce  it,  but 
waits  to  be  told;  being  told  how  to  pronounce  fast,  he  abides  by 
the  direction  and  says  fal-ling,  when  he  is  violently  arrested, 
and  made  to  utter  falling,  falling,  fCdling,  with  repetition  and 
emphasis;  secure  in  this  sound,  he  comes  to  the  last  word 
which,  in  imitation  of  the  preceding,  he  calls  deed,  and  gets 
slapped,  if  not  flogged,  for  his  stupidity. 

Who  has  not  seen  a  hapless  child,  when  first  carried  from  the 
alphabet  into  short  words,  after  he  finds  that  none  of  the  letters 
with  which,  he  thought  he  was  so  well  acquainted,  will  now 


16  THE   ADVANTAGES    OF 

answer  to  their  names,  but  that  all  balk  and  tantalize  him,  and 
chatter  in  his  face  with  unknown  sounds — who  has  not  seen 
him  gaze  up  in  bewilderment  into  the  teacher's  face,  with  such 
a  piteous  and  imploring  look  as  would  almost  make  statuary 
weep? 

In  further  illustration  of  the  ever  changing  sounds  of  the  vow- 
els, take  the  following  verses  miscalled  "  Univocalic  Verses." 
The  Teacher  who  examines  these  will  no  longer  blame  the  young 
reader  who  fails  to  give  the  correct  pronunciation  of  words. 
The  plan  of  teaching  the  alphabet,  usually  adopted — not  the 
child — is  responsible  for  the  failure. 

A. 

THE    RUSSO-TURKISH    WAR. 

"  Wars  harm  all  ranks — all  arts,  all  crafts  appal ; 
At  Mars'  harsh  blast,  arch,  rampart,  altar  fall  1 
Ah  !  hard  as  adamant,  a  braggart  Czar 
Arms  vassal  swarms,  and  fans  a  fatal  war  ! 
Rampant  at  that  bad  call,  a  vandal  band 
Harass  and  harm  and  ransack  Wallach  land  ! 
A  Tartar  phalanx  Balkan's  scarp  hath  past, 
And  Allah's  standard  falls,  alas,  at  last  1 " 

E. 

THE    FALL    OF    EVE. 

"  Eve,  Eden's  Empress,  needs  defended  be  ; 
The  serpent  greets  her,  when  she  seeks  the  tree. 
Serene,  she  sees- the  speckled  tempter  creep  ; 
Gentle  he  seems — perverted  schemer  deep — 
Yet  endless  pretexts,  ever  fresh,  prefers, 
Perverts  her  senses,  revels  when  she  errs — 
Sneers  when  she  weeps,  regrets,  repents  she  fell, 
Then,  deep-revenged,  reseeks  the  nether  Hell." 

I. 

THE  APPROACH  OF  EVENING. 

"  Idling  I  sit  in  this  mild  twilight  dim, 
Whilst  birds,  in  swift,  wild  vigils  skim. 
Light  winds  in  sighing  sink,  till,  rising  bright, 
Night's  virgin  pilgrim  swims  in  vivid  light  1" 

In  connection  with  this  subject  of  the  utter  lack  of  art  in  the 
construction  of  our  language,  the  following  "  Humble  Petition 
of  the  Letter  C,"  taken  from  the  Zanesville  Gazette,  will  be 
found  suggestive,  as  well  as  amusing.     It  is  addressed  : 


ASSOCIATION    OP   IDEAS.  17 


"  TO  THE  HONORABLE  THE  ARBITERS  OF  THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE  : 

"Most  High  and  Mighty  Sirs  : — The  appearanse  of  so  humble  an  individual  as 
the  undersigned,  before  your  august  body,  is,  perhaps,  as  well  kalkulated  to  exsite  sur- 
prise in  you,  as  awe  in  him  ;  but  when  you  reflekt  that  ever  sinse  his  introduktion  into 
the  mashinery  of  the  English  language,  over  whose  destinies  you  hold  supreme  kon- 
trol,  he  has  been  the  subjekt  of  grievanses  the  most  intolerable  and  usurpations  the 
most  foul,  you  will,  it  is  hoped,  find  a  palliation  for  his  offense,  and  be  konstrained  to 
regard  his  prayer  in  a  spirit  less  of  reproof  for  his  boldness  than  of  kompassion  for  his 
patient  long  suffering. 

*  But  to  show  you  that  your  petitioner  has  just  kause  of  komplaint,  a  kandid  exhi- 
bition of  fakts  is  nesessary. 

M  1st.  Your  petitioner,  when  plased  before  a,  o,  u,r,  and  t,  as  in  car,  core,  cut,  crash, 
and  tract,  though  standing  in  bold  relief,  as  large  as  life,  is  always  usurped  in  his  funk- 
tions  by  the  ugly  h,  and  it  really  appears  to  him  that  he  is  permitted  to  okkupy  these 
stations  only  in  derision,  or  to  hide  the  deformity  of  his  suksessful  rival ;  and  even 
when  your  petitioner  takes  an  humbler  station  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  or  word,  as  in 
fraction,  public,  antic,  and  the  like,  he  is  not  permitted  to  perform  the  servile  labors 
belonging  to  it,  but  is  superseded  by  the  same  ugly  but  enviable  rival. 

"  2nd.  Your  petitioner  when  plased  before  c,  i,  and  y,  as  in  lace,  cider,  mercy,  is  not 
permitted  to  enjoy  the  honors  of  his  position,  but  they  are  invariably  usurped  by  the 
graseful,  singing,  slippery  s,  to  the  no  small  disgrase  and  mortifikation  of  your  peti- 
tioner. 

"3d.  When  plased  before  a  diphthong,  and  preseded  by  an  aksent,  as  in  ocean,  social, 
species,  spacious,  saponaceous,  your  petitioner  is  deprived  of  the  blushing  honors  that 
he  did  think  were  koming  thik  upon  him,  by  sh. 

"4th.  Your  petitioner,  in  some  kompanies,  as  in  discern,  sacrifice,  is  only  a  pitiable 
proxy  for  the  zigzag  z,  and  in  other  kompauies  such  as  corpuscle,  czar,  indict,  victuals, 
he  has  the  double  mortifikation  of  finding  that  your  honorable  body  have  deprived  him 
not  only  of  the  right  to  speak  for  himself,  but  also  of  the  poor  komfort  of  speaking  as 
proxy  for  any  other. 

"  5th.  Even  when  in  combination  with  his  friend  and  ally  h,  as  in  chair,  child, 
milch,  bench,  chaos,  chasm,  your  petitioner  does  not  enjoy  the  honors  he  onse  expekted 
to  reap  from  that  alliance,  but  is  lost  in  the  superior  glories  of  tsh,  sh,  or  his  most  in- 
veterate rival  h  ;  and  sometimes,  as  in  drachm,  schism,  yacht,  he  is  under  the  painful 
nesessity  of  witnessing  the  humiliating  silense  that  both  he  and  his  friend  are  kom- 
pelled  to  observe,  even  in  konspikuous  stations. 

"  6th.  Besides  all  these,  certain  signs  or  marks,  such  as  the  sedilla,  and,  by  Webster, 
a  horizontal  line  through,  have  been  invented  to  lead  the  ignorant  to  a  knowledge  of 
the  individual  by  whom  the  honors  of  his  station  are  stolen  from  your  petitioner  j  thus 
kompelling  him,  not  only  to  witness  his  own  humiliation,  but  aktually  to  bekome  the 
publisher  of  his  own  shame,  by  karrying  marks  of  it  upon  his  person. 

"  Your  petitioner,  therefore,  begs  your  honorable  body,  in  the  humblest  and  most 
respektful  manner,  that  from  this  time  forth,  k,  s,  z,  tsh  and  sh,  be  kompelled  to  assume 
in  their  own  proper  persons,  the  stations  they  have  so  long  okkupied  through  him,  and 
to  bekome  personally  responsible  for  the  faithful  and  korrekt  performanse  of  the  funk- 
tions  of  those  stations,  and  that  your  petitioner,  henseforth  and  forever,  be  exkused 
from  performing  servise  in  the  English  language. 

"  And  your  petitioner  will  ever  pray.  "  C." 

In  a  number  of  schools,  some  of  the  difficulties  described  by- 
Horace  Mann  are  now  obviated  by  teaching  the  child  to  give, 


l§  THE    ADVANTAGES    OF 

not  the  common  alphabetic  sound,  but  the  sounds  which  the 

letters  are  to  haye  in  combination,  according  to  the  phonetic 
method,  but  there  arc  still  thousands  who  teach  in  the  old  fash- 
ioned way. 

Some  distinguished  Educators — Horace  Mann  among  them — 
strongly  urge  that  whole  words  should  be  taught  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  object  lessons,  before  teaching  the  letters  of  which 
t  hey  are  composed.  Of  the  advantages  of  this  method,  I  cannot 
speak  from  experience.  Some  who  have  tried  it  speak  very 
highly  of  it. 

One  thing  is  certain,  the  last  generation  of  Teachers  had  not 
hit  upon  the  proper  method  of  teaching  spelling.  Their  method 
has  proved  a  failure,  for  it  is  astonishing  howr  many  persons  of 
no  little  pretension  to  attainments,  including  but  too  large  a 
number  of  Teachers,  are  at  this  day  utterly  reckless  of  the  mys- 
teries of  spelling. 

They  remind  me  of  the  little  boy  who  spelled  OJidand,  Oak- 
land, and  when  corrected,  replied  sturdily — "  Well,  that  may  be 
your  wray  of  spelling  it — you  may  spell  it  just  as  you  please,  but 
this  is  my  way." 

The  ingenuity  some  people  exhibit  in  misspelling  even  simple 
words  is  really  wonderful. 

The  ingenuity  of  the  man  who  employed  Kaugfophy  to  spell 
what  :' Coffee  "  would  so  much  more  easily  spell,  does  not  ex- 
ceed that  of  some  applicants  for  Teachers'  certificates,  whom  I 
have  examined. 

The  time  devoted  to  the  study  of  definitions  by  young  chil- 
dren, I  look  upon  as  almost  wTasted.  If  the  wTords  are  common 
no  definition  is  needed.  In  the  case  of  unfamiliar  Avords,  the 
definitions  are  as  unintelligible  as  the  words  defined.  They  con- 
vey no  idea  whatever  to  the  child.  There  must  be  a  definition 
of  the  definition — a  square  of  the  definition,  so  to  speak — and 
the  obscurity,  it  maybe  said,  increases  as  the  square  of  the  defi- 
nition. Our  dictionaries  have  been  greatly  improved  in  modern 
times,  but  to  the  child,  many  of  the  definitions  arc  about  as 
lucid  as  that  given  in  the  first  edition  of  Johnson,  of  the  word 
';boy"" — "not  a  girl."  The  reader  naturally  turned  to  look  for 
"  girl,"  and  found  that  it  meant  "  not  a  boy." 

Prof.  Fowle  gives  an  amusing  illustration  of  the  mystification 
produced  by  definitions  of  even  common  words. 

In  preparing  a  new  work  to  oblige  children  to  write  the  words 
of  their  spelling  books,  he  was  in  search  of  a  simple  definition 


ASSOCIATION    OF   IDEAS.  19 

of  a  ''flounce"  and  a  "periwig,"  both  common  things  and  well 
understood.  He  says — "I  turned  to  the  most  popular,  and  re- 
ally the  best  school  dictionary,  and  found  the  definitions  as 
follows : 

"  Perurig.     Adscititious  hair. 

"  Flounce.  A  loose,  full  trimming,  sewed  to  a  woman's  garmen  t 
so  as  to  swell  and  shake. 

"  I  then  asked  an  intelligent  child  what  sort  of  hair  he  thought 
'adscititious  hair' wTas. — kI  do'nt  know;' said  he.  'Is  it  hair 
that  is  all  in  a  snarl  ?  ' — I  then  asked  an  intelligent  girl  what 
she  would  call  '  a  loose,  full  trimming,  sewed  to  a  woman's  gar- 
ment so  as  to  swell  and  shake/  and  she  said  at  once,  'an  April 
fool/  She  was  thinking  of  the  tag  she  had  pinned  to  the  back 
of  her  companion's  dress  on  the  first  of  April.  So  much  for  the 
definition  of  easy  words.  I  then  had  occasion  to  look  out  the 
word  '  Imbricated/  and  found  that  it  meant  '  Indented  with 
concavities.'  I  asked  a  Miss  who  was  reading,  the  meaning  of 
the  word  '  anodyne/ in  the  expression,  'the  anodyne  draught  of 
oblivion,'  and  she  looked  in  the  dictionary,  and  mistaking  the 
a  which  denoted  that  the  word  was  an  adjective,  for  a  part  of 
the  definition,  she  said  anodyne  meant  '  a  mitigating  pain/  " 

If  the  memory  is  treacherous,  the  definition  will  soon  escape, 
almost  as  soon  as  it  is  learned,  or  it  may  be  applied  to  the  wrong 
word.  When  a  class  of  young  Misses  was  once  reading  to  me, 
the  word  "  wedlock"  occurred,  antl,  as  usual,  I  asked  the  mean- 
ing of  it.  "  I  know,"  said  a  lively  little  girl,  who  had  '  studied 
dictionary/  as  she  called  it,  at  another  school ;  "  it  is  something 
they  fasten  barn-doors  with." 

The  same  writer  gives  an  amusing  instance  of  the  inapplica- 
bility or  ambiguity  of  Murray's  definition  of  a  "Preposition." 
"In  the  first  school  I  undertook  to  teach,"  says  he,  "I  sought, 
at  the  outset,  to  ascertain  the  progress  the  highest  class  had 
made  in  Grammar.  I  selected  a  sentence  from  the  reading  book. 
It  was,  '  David  smote  Goliah/  '  Well/  said  I  to  the  first 
pupil, 'what  part  of  speech  is  David?7  'A  noun,  Sir.'  'What 
is  a  noun  ?'  'A  substantive  or  noun  is  the  name  of  anything 
that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion/  '  Is  David,  in 
this  sentence,  the  name  of  anything  that  exists V  'No,  Sir; 
David  died  long  ago/  '  Is  it  the  name  of  anything  of  which 
you  have  any  notion  ? '  '  Yes,  Sir ;  I  have  some  notion  of  him 
as  a  very  small  man,  and  a  king.'  As  the  object  was  only  to 
ascertain  the  part  of  speech,  I  asked  the  next  pupil  what  part 


20  THE  ADVANTAGES   OP 

of  speech  '  smote  '  was.  '  A  preposition,  Sir.'  '  A  preposition ! ' 
said  I,  with  astonishment,  '  pray  what  is  a  preposition  ? ' 
'  Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one  another,  and 
to  show  the  relation  between  them.'  '  Very  well/  said  I,  with 
all  the  importance  of  a  Teacher  who  felt  it  his  duty  to  expose 
the  ignorance  of  his  pupil,  'what  words  does  'smote'  connect?' 
'David  and  Goliah,  Sir,  for  there  is  nothing  else  to  connect 
them.'  'Yes/  said  I,  somewhat  flurried,  'but  what  relation 
does  it  show  between  them?'  'Not  a  very  friendly  one  I 
should  think,  Sir/  said  the  pupil.  I  was  struck  with  the  truth 
of  the  answers,  and  had  the  honesty  to  say,  '  You  are  right, 
Miss,  or  the  definition  in  your  book  is  wrong.'  " 

And  just  here  let  me  give  the  Scotchman's  definition  of  "  Meta- 
physics." You  will  appreciate  it.  His  head  had  been  thoroughly 
muddled  by  the  clashing  theories  and  fine-spun  distinctions  of 
Dugald  Stewart,  Kant,  and  Thomas  Brown.  To  a  friend  who 
asked  him  "What  is  Metaphysics?"  he  exclaimed,  at  last,  in 
despair : 

"  When  the  mon  who  hears  does  na  ken  what  the  mon  who 
speaks,  means,  and  when  the  mon  who  speaks  does  na  ken  what 
he  means  himself — that  is  Metaphysics." 

Bishop  Berkeley  is  the  author  of  one  of  the  wittiest  defini- 
tions I  have  ever  met  with.  The  famous  Dr.  Halley,  the 
mathematician  and  astronomer-royal  of  England,  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  scientific  worfts.  In  some  of  them,  he  trod  upon 
the  toes  of  the  theologians,  and  he  was  by  them  accused  of  infi- 
delity. A  controversy  sprung  up  between  him  and  Bishop 
Berkeley  upon  the  nature  of  the  soul,  spirits,  etc.,  Halley  con- 
tending that  these  subjects  were  too  etherial  and  intangible  to 
admit  of  demonstration — that  it  was  unphilosophical  to  reason 
upon  the  nature  and  qualities  of  things  whose  existence  could 
not  be  proved,  etc.  Berkeley  retorted  that  the  same  style  of 
argument  would  upset  one  of  the  most  beautiful  fabrics  of  the 
Mathematicians — to  wit,  Fluxions,  introduced  but  a  little  while 
before  by  Newton  in  his  Principia,  and  greatly  affected  by 
Halley  The  received  definition  of  a  Fluxion,  at  that  time,  was 
"A  quantity  infinitely  smaller  than  any  finite  quantity,  contain- 
ing a  quantity  infinitely  smaller  than  itself,  and  that  again 
containing  a  quantity  infinitely  smaller  than  itself,  and  so  on 
ad  infinitum" 

"  This,"  said  Berkeley,  "  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the 


ASSOCIATION    OF   IDEAS,  21 

ghost  of  a  departed  quantity,  and  yet,  you  write  volumes  upon 
it." 

Returning  to  our  subject  of  the  study  of  definitions  in  school, 
I  have  always  thought,  with  Mr.  Fowle,  that  "  The  true  place 
to  teach  a  child  the  meaning  of  a  word  is  not  in  the  dictionary, 
where  it  may  have  a  dozen  meanings  apparently  contradictory 
or  perfectly  unintelligible,  but  in  the  reading  lesson,  where  the 
word  is  used,  and  where  its  very  use  often  defines  it.  The  faith- 
ful Teacher  will  never  miss  this  opportunity  to  explain  words, 
not  only  because  the  interest  and  the  intelligent  reading  of  the 
particular  lesson  depend  upon  it,  but  because  he  will  never,  in 
any  other  department  of  instruction,  have  so  good  a  chance  to 
teach  the  correct  meaning  and  use  of  words." 

A  Teacher  may  forever  fix  the  recollection  of  an  important 
fact  or  leading  principle,  by  the  relation  of  an  amusing  incident, 
entertaining  anecdote,  or  pertinent  story.  He  should  not  be 
above  a  joke  now  and  then.  It  will  not  hurt  either  him  or  his 
children.  * 

Nothing,  perhaps,  so  forcibly  impressed  me  with  the  true 
principles  of  inductive  philosophy  as  the  story  told  me  by  my 
Teacher,  of  the  trick  played  by  Charles  I,  (I  believe  it  was,) 
upon  the  savans  who  composed  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences. 
In  solemn  audience,  he  demanded  of  them  to  explain  why  it 
was  that  when  you  put  a  fish  weighing  20  pounds  into  a  vessel 
brimful  of  water,  the  water  will  not  overflow.  You  all  recol- 
lect the  story.  The  philosophers  puzzled  for  a  month  over  the 
question,  each  inventing  a  different  theory.  At  a  subsequent 
audience  they  presented  their  various  explanations,  but  were 
confounded  by  Charles  telling  them  that  none  of  their  labored 
theories  would  answer,  because  the  water  would  overflow. 

Many  a  time  since  has  this  story  saved  me  from  wasting  time 
in  speculations  upon  impossible,  improbable,  or  unauthenticated 
phenomena.  But  a  day  or  two  ago,  I  clipped  from  the  Spring- 
field (Mass.)  Republican,  a  paragraph  headed  "  A  Nut  for  the 
Geologists."  It  stated  that  a  returned  Californian  met  a  number 
of  his  friends  in  Springfield  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  desiring 
to  astonish  them,  he  brought  out  a  large  specimen  of  crystal- 
lized quartz  and  gold  for  their  inspection.  Whilst  handling,  it 
dropped  upon  the  floor  and  broke  in  two.  To  the  amazement 
of  every  one,  a  cut  iron  nail  was  found,  imbedded  in  the  gold 
and  quartz.  The  editor  thereupon  indulged  in  some  fanciful 
speculations  as  to  the  way  in  which  this  nail  came  to  be  in  this 


22  THE   ADVANTAGES    OF 

position,  and  called  lustily  upon  Geologists  for  an  explanation. 
It  was  King  Charles'  trick  over  again.  There  are  two 
questions  of  a  similar  character  that  greatly  exercised  me  when 
a  boy — "  If  the  third  of  six  be  three,  what  will  the  fourth  of 
twenty  be?"  and  "  If  a  body,  moving  with  irresistible  force, 
encounter  an  immovable  body,  what  will  be  the  effect?"  Little 
anecdotes  like  these,  act  as  finger-boards  pointing  to  great 
principles. 

One  word  more,  in  conclusion.  From  what  I  have  said,  you 
will  understand  that  no  matter  what  the  branch  taught,  its  lend- 
ing facts  and  principles  may  be  ineffaceably  impressed  upon  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  by  assisting  him  with  an  association  of  idea*. 
If  this  adjunct  be  witty,  odd  or  striking,  so  much  greater  will 
be  the  impression  produced. 

Take  Chemistry,  for  instance.  What  pupil  will  ever  forget 
the  chemical  facts,  that  Hydrogen  unites  with  Chlorine  to  form 
Muriatic  Acid  Gas,  and  that  Ammonia  is  the  volatile  alkali, 
who  hears  the  following  verses,  entitled  "Lays  of  the  Labora- 
tory," taken  from  an  old  English  magazine  ?  The  first  is  en- 
titled : 

"hydrogen  to  chlorine — A  Sonnet. 
0  tell  me  when  thou  wilt  he  mine, 

My  beautiful !  my  green  ! 
0  say  our  atoms  shall  combine, 

My  love — my  own  Chlorine  ! 

How  slowly  will  the  moments  pass, 

The  sands  of  time  will  run  ; 
As  Muriatic  Acid  Gas, 

Till  thou  and  I  make  one  ! " 

The  next  is  entitled: 

"  AMMONIA — A   Duet. 

Ammonia,  so  frolicsome,  whither  away? 

To  sport  in  the  breeze,  like  the  butterfly  gay  ? 

Still  lively  as  ever,  thou  aeriform  thing ! — 

My  delight  is  to  constantly  be  on  the  wing, 

So  I'll  merrily,  merrily  soar  to  the  sky 

For  you  know  I'm  the  volatile  alkali." 

Sulphuric  acid  has  a  stronger  affinity  for  Baryta  than  for  most 
other  bases.  Hence,  when  Carbonate  of  Baryta  is  introduced 
into  a  solution  of  Sulphate  of  Magnesia,  a  double  decomposition 
takes  place,  producing  Sulphate  of  Baryta  and  Carbonate  of 
Magnesia.  I  defy  the  pupil  to  forget  these  facts,  and  this  prin- 
ciple of  double  decomposition,  who  hears  the  following.  It  is 
entitled : 


ASSOCIATION    OF    IDEAS.  23 

"  MAGNESIA,  THE    FORSAKEN    ONE,  TO    SULPHURIC    ACIB. 

Thou  hast  left  mo  for  another — 

.  Be  it  so,  since  Ave  must  part : 
Scorned  affinity  I'll  smother — 
Go — inconstant,  as  thou  art ! 

Since  Baryta,  me  forsaking, 

Thou  hast  chosen  for  thy  mate, 
I,  a  worthier  partner  taking, 

Will  become  a  Carbonate. 

To  a  rival  more  alluring, 

Now  Magnesia  leaves  thee  free  ; 
Form  with  her  a  more  enduring 

Sulphate,  than  thou  did'st  with  me!" 

There  is  wit,  as  well  as  chemistry,  in  this. 

In  imitation  of  this,  let  us  try  our  hand  at  a  chemical  sonnet. 
You  are  all  aware,  that  up  to  a  comparatively  recent  period,  the 
alkalies,  potash  and  soda,  were  classed  by  chemists  as  simple 
substances. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  was  the  first  to  discover  their  compound 
nature.  By  means  of  a  powerful  Yoltaic  battery,  he,  succeeded 
in  resolving  potash  into  the  metal,*  potassium,  and  the  gas 
oxygen;  and  soda,  into  sodium  and  ogygen.  Both  sodium  and 
potassium  have  so  strong  an  affinity  for  oxygen,  that  they  will 
burn  when  thrown  on  water,  or  exposed  to  the  air,  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature.  Hence,  to  preserve  them  in  their  metallic 
state,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  naphtha,  a  liquid  that  con- 
tains no  oxygen.  Let  us  endeavor*  to  convey  these  ideas  by  a 
sonnet  which  we  will  call — 

THE    LAMENT    OP    POTASSIUM. 

Sweet  Oxygen,  my  life  and  my  bride  ! 

Sir  Humphrey,  that  man  full  of  guile, 
J  las  torn  thee  away  from  my  side, 
*■  Through  that  odious  Voltaic  pile. 

No  longer  as  an  alkali  known, 

My  nature  is  utterly  changed  ; 
The  dear  name  of  potash  has  gone, 

And,  as  potassium,  a  metal,  I'm  ranged. 

Oh  !  Oxygen,  pride  of  my  heart ! 

To  thee  my  soul  fondly  yet  clings, 
Though  I've  long  known  how  ready  thou  art, 

To  unite  with  all  created  things. 

Our  parting  still  fills  me  with  pain  ; 

E'en  Naphtha  my  love  can't  efface, 
I  burn  to  embrace  thee  again, 

And   will  burn   when  reunion  takes  place. 


24  THE   ADVANTAGES   OP   ASSOCIATION    OF   IDEAS. 


/ 


•  Note. — The  expedients  which  I  have  suggested,  are,  of  course,  intended  more 
particularly  for  use  in  Primary  Schools.  Their  object  is  to  amuse  and  interest,  while 
instructing,  very  young  children. 

Young  pupils  do  not  love  knowledge  for  knowledge's  sake,  and  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  they  should. 

The  Teacher's  great  difficulty  is  to  awaken  their  interest  and  fix  their  attention,  and 
every  expedienUthat  will  assist  in  accomplishing  these  objects,  may  be  legitimately, 
and  should  be  unhesitatingly  employed,  even  though  young  hearts  bubble  up  with 
laughter  at  its  oddity  or  novelty. 

I  am  aware  that  the  canting,  snuffling,  Aminadab  Sleeks  of  society  look  with  hor- 
ror upon  this  thing  of  amusing  young  children  in  the  school-room. 

They  regard  a  joke  as  an  impiety — the  spirit  of  fun  as  the  spirit  of  the  devil,  and 
laughter,  as  an  echo  of  hell. 

The  race  of  Waxford  Squeers  is  not  yet  extinct.  Let  us  hope  there  are  few  of  the 
tribe  left  in  California. 

A.  J.  M. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

#No*9J*f 

"„. 

JUN  9    195$ 

v-OuV*W*       - 

Jul  am 

]2Atj£^qjfl 

REC'D  LD 

JUL  30  1959 

nfeb'^PW 

RliC'D  l_p 

JUN  4  I960 

^I^O5,0^'58                               Uriv^gggrni.          | 

i 


i.u  d4252 


M262482 


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